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Spis treści

Learning Python. 6th Edition eBook -- spis treści

• Preface
  • Python
  • This Book
  • This Edition
  • Media Choices
  • Updates and Examples
  • Conventions and Reuse
  • Acknowledgments
• I. Getting Started
• 1. A Python Q&A Session
  • Why Do People Use Python?
    • Software Quality
    • Developer Productivity
  • Is Python a Scripting Language?
  • OK, but Whats the Downside?
  • Who Uses Python Today?
  • What Can I Do with Python?
    • Systems Programming
    • GUIs and UIs
    • Internet and Web Scripting
    • Component Integration
    • Database Access
    • Rapid Prototyping
    • Numeric and Scientific Programming
    • And More: AI, Games, Images, QA, Excel, Apps
  • What Are Pythons Technical Strengths?
    • Its Object-Oriented and Functional
    • Its Free and Open
    • Its Portable
    • Its Powerful
    • Its Mixable
    • Its Relatively Easy to Use
    • Its Relatively Easy to Learn
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 2. How Python Runs Programs
  • Introducing the Python Interpreter
  • Program Execution
    • The Programmers View
    • Pythons View
      • Bytecode compilation
      • The Python Virtual Machine (PVM)
      • Performance implications
      • Development implications
  • Execution-Model Variations
    • Python Implementation Alternatives
    • Standalone Executables
    • Future Possibilities
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 3. How You Run Programs
  • Installing Python
  • Interactive Code
    • Starting an Interactive REPL
    • Where to Run: Code Folders
    • What Not to Type: Prompts and Comments
    • Other Python REPLs
    • Running Code Interactively
    • Why the Interactive Prompt?
      • Learning
      • Testing
  • Program Files
    • A First Script
    • Running Files with Command Lines
    • Command-Line Usage Variations
  • Other Ways to Run Files
    • Clicking and Tapping File Icons
    • The IDLE Graphical User Interface
    • Other IDEs for Python
    • Smartphone Apps
    • WebAssembly for Browsers
    • Jupyter Notebooks for Science
    • Ahead-of-Time Compilers for Speed
    • Running Code in Code
      • Importing modules
      • Reloading modules
      • Module attributes: a first look
      • The exec built-in
      • Command-line launchers
    • Other Launch Options
  • Which Option Should I Use?
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
  • Test Your Knowledge: Part I Exercises
• II. Objects and Operations
• 4. Introducing Python Objects
  • The Python Conceptual Hierarchy
  • Why Use Built-in Objects?
  • Pythons Core Object Types
  • Numbers
  • Strings
    • Sequence Operations
    • Immutability
    • Type-Specific Methods
    • Getting Help
    • Other Ways to Code Strings
    • Unicode Strings
  • Lists
    • Sequence Operations
    • Type-Specific Operations
    • Bounds Checking
    • Nesting
    • Comprehensions
  • Dictionaries
    • Mapping Operations
    • Nesting Revisited
    • Missing Keys: if Tests
    • Item Iteration: for Loops
  • Tuples
    • Why Tuples?
  • Files
    • Unicode and Byte Files
    • Other File-Like Tools
  • Other Object Types
    • Sets
    • Booleans and None
    • Types
    • Type Hinting
    • User-Defined Objects
    • And Everything Else
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 5. Numbers and Expressions
  • Numeric Object Basics
    • Numeric Literals
    • Built-in Numeric Tools
  • Python Expression Operators
    • Mixed Operators: Precedence
    • Parentheses Group Subexpressions
    • Mixed Types Are Converted Up
    • Preview: Operator Overloading and Polymorphism
  • Numbers in Action
    • Variables and Basic Expressions
    • Numeric Display Formats
    • Comparison Operators
      • Chained comparisons
      • Floating-point equality
    • Division Operators
      • Floor versus truncation
    • Integer Precision
    • Complex Numbers
    • Hex, Octal, and Binary
    • Bitwise Operations
    • Underscore Separators in Numbers
    • Other Built-in Numeric Tools
  • Other Numeric Objects
    • Decimal Objects
      • Decimal basics
      • Setting decimal precision
    • Fraction Objects
      • Fraction basics
      • Numeric accuracy in fractions and decimals
    • Set Objects
      • Sets in action
      • Immutable constraints and frozen sets
      • Set comprehensions
      • Why sets?
    • Boolean Objects
  • Numeric Extensions
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 6. The Dynamic Typing Interlude
  • The Case of the Missing Declaration Statements
    • Variables, Objects, and References
    • Types Live with Objects, Not Variables
    • Objects Are Garbage-Collected
  • Shared References
    • Shared References and In-Place Changes
    • Shared References and Equality
  • Dynamic Typing Is Everywhere
  • Type Hinting: Optional, Unused, and Why?
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 7. String Fundamentals
  • String Object Basics
  • String Literals
    • Single and Double Quotes Are the Same
    • Escape Sequences Are Special Characters
    • Raw Strings Suppress Escapes
    • Triple Quotes and Multiline Strings
  • Strings in Action
    • Basic Operations
    • Indexing and Slicing
      • Extended slicing: The third limit and slice objects
    • String Conversion Tools
      • Character-code conversions
      • String comparisons
    • Changing Strings Part 1: Sequence Operations
  • String Methods
    • Method Call Syntax
    • All String Methods (Today)
    • Changing Strings, Part 2: String Methods
    • More String Methods: Parsing Text
    • Other Common String Methods
  • String Formatting: The Triathlon
    • String-Formatting Options
    • The String-Formatting Expression
      • Formatting expression basics
      • Formatting expression custom formats
      • Advanced formatting expression examples
      • Dictionary-based formatting expressions
    • The String-Formatting Method
      • Formatting method basics
      • Adding keys, attributes, and offsets
      • Formatting method custom formats
      • Advanced formatting method examples
    • The F-String Formatting Literal
      • F-string formatting basics
      • F-string custom formats
      • Advanced f-string examples
    • And the Winner Is
  • General Type Categories
    • Types Share Operation Sets by Categories
    • Mutable Types Can Be Changed in Place
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 8. Lists and Dictionaries
  • Lists
  • Lists in Action
    • Basic List Operations
    • Indexing and Slicing
    • Changing Lists in Place
      • Index and slice assignments
      • List method calls
      • Sorting lists
    • More List Methods
    • Iteration, Comprehensions, and Unpacking
      • List comprehensions and maps
      • List-literal unpacking
    • Other List Operations
  • Dictionaries
  • Dictionaries in Action
    • Basic Dictionary Operations
    • Changing Dictionaries in Place
    • More Dictionary Methods
    • Other Dictionary Makers
      • Dictionary-literal unpacking
    • Dictionary Comprehensions
    • Key Insertion Ordering
    • Dictionary Union Operator
    • Intermission: Books Database
      • Mapping values to keys
    • Dictionary Usage Tips
      • Using dictionaries to simulate flexible lists: Integer keys
      • Using dictionaries for sparse data structures: Tuple keys
      • Avoiding missing-key errors
      • Nesting in dictionaries
      • Dictionary key/value/item view objects
      • Dictionary views and sets
      • Sorting dictionary keys
      • Dictionary magnitude comparisons
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 9. Tuples, Files, and Everything Else
  • Tuples
    • Tuples in Action
      • Tuple syntax peculiarities: Commas and parentheses
      • Conversions, methods, and immutability
    • Why Lists and Tuples?
    • Records Revisited: Named Tuples
  • Files
    • Opening Files
    • Using Files
    • Files in Action
    • Text and Binary Files: The Short Story
    • Storing Objects with Conversions
    • Storing Objects with pickle
    • Storing Objects with JSON
    • Storing Objects with Other Tools
    • File Context Managers
    • Other File Tools
  • Core Types Review and Summary
    • Object Flexibility
    • References Versus Copies
    • Comparisons, Equality, and Truth
      • Mixed-type comparisons and sorts
      • Dictionary comparisons
    • The Meaning of True and False in Python
      • The None object
      • The bool type
    • Pythons Type Hierarchies
    • Type Objects
  • Other Types in Python
  • Built-in Type Gotchas
    • Assignment Creates References, Not Copies
    • Repetition Adds One Level Deep
    • Beware of Cyclic Data Structures
    • Immutable Types Cant Be Changed in Place
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
  • Test Your Knowledge: Part II Exercises
• III. Statements and Syntax
• 10. Introducing Python Statements
  • The Python Conceptual Hierarchy Revisited
  • Pythons Statements
  • A Tale of Two ifs
    • What Python Adds
    • What Python Removes
      • Parentheses are optional
      • End-of-line is end of statement
      • End of indentation is end of block
    • Why Indentation Syntax?
    • A Few Special Cases
      • Statement rule special cases
      • Block rule special case
  • A Quick Example: Interactive Loops
    • A Simple Interactive Loop
    • Doing Math on User Inputs
    • Handling Errors by Testing Inputs
    • Handling Errors with try Statements
    • Supporting Floating-Point Numbers
    • Nesting Code Three Levels Deep
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 11. Assignments, Expressions, and Prints
  • Assignments
    • Assignment Syntax Forms
    • Basic Assignments
    • Sequence Assignments
      • Advanced sequence-assignment patterns
    • Extended-Unpacking Assignments
      • Extended unpacking in action
      • Boundary cases
      • A useful convenience
      • Application to for loops
    • Multiple-Target Assignments
      • Multiple-target assignment and shared references
    • Augmented Assignments
      • Augmented assignment and shared references
    • Named Assignment Expressions
      • When to use named assignment
    • Variable Name Rules
      • Naming conventions
      • Names have no type, but objects do
  • Expression Statements
    • Expression Statements and In-Place Changes
  • Print Operations
    • The print Function
      • Call format
      • The print function in action
    • Print Stream Redirection
      • The Python hello world program
      • Manual stream redirection
      • Automatic stream redirection
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 12. if and match Selections
  • if Statements
    • General Format
    • Basic Examples
    • Multiple-Choice Selections
      • Handling switch defaults
      • Handling larger actions
  • match Statements
    • Basic match Usage
      • Match versus if live
    • Advanced match Usage
  • Python Syntax Revisited
    • Block Delimiters: Indentation Rules
      • Avoid mixing tabs and spaces
    • Statement Delimiters: Lines and Continuations
    • Special Syntax Cases in Action
  • Truth Values Revisited
  • The if/else Ternary Expression
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 13. while and for Loops
  • while Loops
    • General Format
    • Examples
  • break, continue, pass, and the Loop else
    • General Loop Format
    • pass
      • The ellipsis-literal alternative
    • continue
      • The nested-code alternative
    • break
      • The named-assignment alternative
    • Loop else
      • Why the loop else?
  • for Loops
    • General Format
    • Examples
      • Basic usage
      • Other data types
      • Tuple (sequence) assignment in for loops
      • Extended-unpacking assignment in for loops
      • Nested for loops
  • Loop Coding Techniques
    • Counter Loops: range
    • Sequence Scans: while, range, and for
    • Sequence Shufflers: range and len
    • Skipping Items: range and Slices
    • Changing Lists: range and Comprehensions
    • Parallel Traversals: zip
      • More on zip: size and truncation
      • More zip roles: dictionaries
    • Offsets and Items: enumerate
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 14. Iterations and Comprehensions
  • Iterations
    • The Iteration Protocol
      • The iter and next built-ins
      • The full iteration protocol
      • Manual iteration
      • More on iter and next
    • Other Built-in Iterables
      • Reprise: Dictionaries, range, enumerate, and zip
      • Iterator nesting
      • Functional iterables: map and filter
      • Multiple-pass versus single-pass iterables
      • Standard-library iterables in Python
  • Comprehensions
    • List Comprehension Basics
    • List Comprehensions and Files
    • Extended List Comprehension Syntax
      • Filter clauses: if
      • Nested loops: for
    • Comprehensions Cliff-Hanger
  • Iteration Tools
  • Other Iteration Topics
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 15. The Documentation Interlude
  • Python Documentation Sources
    • # Comments
    • The dir Function
    • Docstrings and __doc__
      • User-defined docstrings
      • Docstring standards
      • Built-in docstrings
    • Pydoc: The help Function
      • Running help on built-in tools
      • Running help on your own code
    • Pydoc: HTML Reports
      • Using Pydocs browser interface
      • Customizing Pydoc
      • More Pydoc tips
    • Beyond Docstrings: Sphinx
    • The Standard Manuals
    • Web Resources
  • Common Coding Gotchas
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
  • Test Your Knowledge: Part III Exercises
• IV. Functions and Generators
• 16. Function Basics
  • Why Use Functions?
  • Function Coding Overview
    • Basic Function Tools
    • Advanced Function Tools
    • General Function Concepts
    • def Statements
    • return Statements
    • def Executes at Runtime
    • lambda Makes Anonymous Functions
  • A First Example: Definitions and Calls
    • Definition
    • Calls
    • Polymorphism in Python
  • A Second Example: Intersecting Sequences
    • Definition
    • Calls
    • Polymorphism Revisited
    • Segue: Local Variables
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 17. Scopes
  • Python Scopes Basics
    • Scopes Overview
    • Name Resolution: The LEGB Rule
      • Preview: Other Python scopes
    • Scopes Examples
    • The Built-in Scope
      • Redefining built-in names: For better or worse
  • The global Statement
    • Program Design: Minimize Global Variables
    • Program Design: Minimize Cross-File Changes
    • Other Ways to Access Globals
  • Nested Functions and Scopes
    • Nested Scopes Overview
    • Nested Scopes Examples
    • Closures and Factory Functions
    • Arbitrary Scope Nesting
  • The nonlocal Statement
    • nonlocal Basics
    • nonlocal in Action
    • nonlocal Boundary Cases
  • State-Retention Options
    • Nonlocals: Changeable, Per-Call, LEGB
    • Globals: Changeable but Shared
    • Function Attributes: Changeable, Per-Call, Explicit
    • Classes: Changeable, Per-Call, OOP
    • And the Winner Is
  • Scopes and Argument Defaults
    • Loops Require Defaults, Not Scopes
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 18. Arguments
  • Argument-Passing Basics
    • Arguments and Shared References
    • Avoiding Mutable Argument Changes
    • Simulating Output Parameters and Multiple Results
  • Special Argument-Matching Modes
    • Argument Matching Overview
    • Argument Matching Syntax
    • Argument Passing Details
    • Keyword and Default Examples
      • Keywords
      • Defaults
      • Combining keywords and defaults
    • Arbitrary Arguments Examples
      • Definitions: Collecting arguments
      • Calls: Unpacking arguments
      • Why arbitrary arguments?
    • Keyword-Only Arguments
      • Why keyword-only arguments?
    • Positional-Only Arguments
  • Argument Ordering: The Gritty Details
    • Definition Ordering
      • Formal definition
      • Boundary cases
    • Calls Ordering
      • Formal definition
      • Boundary cases
      • Perspective
  • Example: The min Wakeup Call
    • Full Credit
    • Bonus Points
    • The Punch Line
  • Example: Generalized Set Functions
    • Testing the Code
  • Example: Rolling Your Own Print
    • Using Keyword-Only Arguments
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 19. Function Odds and Ends
  • Function Design Concepts
  • Recursive Functions
    • Summation with Recursion
    • Coding Alternatives
    • Loop Statements Versus Recursion
    • Handling Arbitrary Structures
      • Testing with a separate script
      • Recursion versus queues and stacks
      • Cycles, paths, and stack limits
      • More recursion examples
  • Function Tools: Attributes, Annotations, Etc.
    • The First-Class Object Model
    • Function Introspection
    • Function Attributes
    • Function Annotations and Decorations
      • Function decorators alternative: Preview
  • Anonymous Functions: lambda
    • lambda Basics
    • Why Use lambda?
      • Multiway branches: The finale
    • How (Not) to Obfuscate Your Python Code
    • Scopes: lambdas Can Be Nested Too
  • Functional Programming Tools
    • Mapping Functions over Iterables: map
    • Selecting Items in Iterables: filter
    • Combining Items in Iterables: reduce
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 20. Comprehensions and Generations
  • Comprehensions: The Final Act
    • List Comprehensions Review
    • Formal Comprehension Syntax
    • Example: List Comprehensions and Matrixes
      • When not to use list comprehensions: Code obfuscation
      • When to use list comprehensions: Speed, conciseness, etc.
  • Generator Functions and Expressions
    • Generator Functions: yield Versus return
      • State suspension
      • Iteration protocol integration
      • Generator functions in action
      • Why generator functions?
      • Extended generator function protocol: send versus next
      • The yield from extension
    • Generator Expressions: Iterables Meet Comprehensions
      • Why generator expressions?
      • Generator expressions versus map
      • Generator expressions versus filter
    • Generator Functions Versus Generator Expressions
    • Generator Odds and Ends
      • Generators are single-pass iterables
      • Generation in built-ins and classes
      • Comprehensions versus type calls and generators
      • Scopes and comprehension variables
      • Generating infinite (well, indefinite) results
  • Example: Shuffling Sequences
    • Scrambling Sequences
      • Simple functions
      • Generator functions
      • Generator expressions
      • Tester client
    • Permutating Sequences
      • Why generators here: Space, time, and more
  • Example: Emulating zip and map
    • Coding Your Own map
    • Coding Your Own zip and 2.X map
  • Asynchronous Functions: The Short Story
    • Async Basics
      • Running serial tasks with normal blocking calls
      • Running concurrent tasks with await and async def
      • How not to use async functions
      • Running concurrent tasks with as_completed and gather
      • Running concurrent tasks with async with and async for
    • The Async Wrap-Up
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 21. The Benchmarking Interlude
  • Benchmarking with Homegrown Tools
    • Timer Module: Take 1
    • Timer Module: Take 2
    • Timing Runner and Script
    • Iteration Results
      • Other Pythons results
      • For more good times: Function calls and map
    • More Module Mods
  • Benchmarking with Pythons timeit
    • Basic timeit Usage
      • API-calls mode
      • Command-line mode
      • Handling multiline statements
      • Other timeit usage modes
      • Timing sort speed
    • Automating timeit Benchmarking
      • Benchmark module
      • Benchmark script
      • Timing individual Pythons
      • Timing multiple Pythons
      • Timing set and dictionary iterations
      • Conclusion: Comparing tools
  • Function Gotchas
    • Local Names Are Detected Statically
    • Defaults and Mutable Objects
    • Functions Without returns
    • Miscellaneous Function Gotchas
      • Enclosing scopes and loop variables
      • Hiding built-ins by assignment
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
  • Test Your Knowledge: Part IV Exercises
• V. Modules and Packages
• 22. Modules: The Big Picture
  • Module Essentials
  • Why Use Modules?
  • Python Program Architecture
    • How to Structure a Program
    • Imports and Attributes
    • Standard-Library Modules
  • How Imports Work
    • Step 1: Find It
    • Step 2: Compile It (Maybe)
    • Step 3: Run It
  • The Module Search Path
    • Search-Path Components
    • Configuring the Search Path
    • The sys.path List
      • Inspecting the module search path
      • Changing the module search path
    • Module File Selection
      • Module sources
      • Selection priorities
    • Path Outliers: Standalones and Packages
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 23. Module Coding Basics
  • Creating Modules
    • Module Filenames
    • Other Kinds of Modules
  • Using Modules
    • The import Statement
    • The from Statement
    • The from * Statement
    • Imports Happen Only Once
      • Initialization code
    • Imports Are Runtime Assignments
      • Changing mutables in modules
      • Cross-file name changes
    • import and from Equivalence
    • Potential Pitfalls of the from Statement
      • When import is required
  • Module Namespaces
    • How Files Generate Namespaces
    • Namespace Dictionaries: __dict__
    • Attribute Name Qualification
    • Imports Versus Scopes
    • Namespace Nesting
  • Reloading Modules
    • reload Basics
    • reload Example
    • reload Odds and Ends
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 24. Module Packages
  • Using Packages
    • Package Imports
    • Packages and the Module Search Path
  • Creating Packages
    • Basic Package Structure
      • Using the basic package
    • Package __init__.py Files
      • Using the updated package
    • Package __main__.py Files
      • Using the updated package
  • Why Packages?
    • A Tale of Two Systems
  • The Roles of __init__.py Files
  • Package-Relative Imports
    • Relative and Absolute Imports
    • Relative-Import Rationales and Trade-Offs
    • Package-Relative Imports in Action
      • The normal-import warm-up
      • The relative-import adventure
      • The absolute-import solution
  • Namespace Packages
    • Python Import Models
    • Namespace-Package Rationales
    • The Module Search Algorithm
    • Namespace Packages in Action
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 25. Module Odds and Ends
  • Module Design Concepts
  • Data Hiding in Modules
    • Minimizing from * Damage: _X and __all__
    • Managing Attribute Access: __getattr__ and __dir__
  • Enabling Language Changes: __future__
  • Dual-Usage Modes: __name__ and __main__
    • Example: Unit Tests with __name__
  • The as Extension for import and from
  • Module Introspection
    • Example: Listing Modules with __dict__
  • Importing Modules by Name String
    • Running Code Strings
    • Direct Calls: Two Options
    • Example: Transitive Module Reloads
      • A recursive reloader
      • Testing recursive reloads
      • Alternative codings
      • Testing reload variants
  • Module Gotchas
    • Module Name Clashes: Package and Package-Relative Imports
    • Statement Order Matters in Top-Level Code
    • from Copies Names but Doesnt Link
    • from * Can Obscure the Meaning of Variables
    • reload May Not Impact from Imports
    • reload, from, and Interactive Testing
    • Recursive from Imports May Not Work
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
  • Test Your Knowledge: Part V Exercises
• VI. Classes and OOP
• 26. OOP: The Big Picture
  • Why Use Classes?
  • OOP from 30,000 Feet
    • Attribute Inheritance Search
    • Classes and Instances
    • Method Calls
    • Coding Class Trees
    • Operator Overloading
    • OOP Is About Code Reuse
      • Polymorphism and classes
      • Programming by customization
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 27. Class Coding Basics
  • Classes Generate Multiple Instance Objects
    • Class Objects Provide Default Behavior
    • Instance Objects Are Concrete Items
    • A First Example
  • Classes Are Customized by Inheritance
    • A Second Example
    • Classes Are Attributes in Modules
  • Classes Can Intercept Python Operators
    • A Third Example
      • Returning resultsor not
      • Other operator-overloading methods
  • The Worlds Simplest Python Class
    • Classes: Under the Hood
    • Records Revisited: Classes Versus Dictionaries
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 28. A More Realistic Example
  • Step 1: Making Instances
    • Coding Constructors
    • Testing as You Go
    • Using Code Two Ways
  • Step 2: Adding Behavior Methods
    • Coding Methods
  • Step 3: Operator Overloading
    • Providing Print Displays
  • Step 4: Customizing Behavior by Subclassing
    • Coding Subclasses
    • Augmenting Methods: The Bad Way
    • Augmenting Methods: The Good Way
    • Polymorphism in Action
    • Inherit, Customize, and Extend
    • OOP: The Big Idea
  • Step 5: Customizing Constructors, Too
    • OOP Is Simpler Than You May Think
    • Other Ways to Combine Classes: Composites
  • Step 6: Using Introspection Tools
    • Special Class Attributes
    • A Generic Display Tool
    • Instance Versus Class Attributes
    • Name Considerations in Tool Classes
    • Our Classes Final Form
  • Step 7 (Final): Storing Objects in a Database
    • Pickles and Shelves
      • The pickle module
      • The shelve module
    • Storing Objects on a shelve Database
    • Exploring Shelves Interactively
    • Updating Objects on a Shelf
  • Future Directions
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 29. Class Coding Details
  • The class Statement
    • General Syntax and Usage
    • Example: Class Attributes
  • Methods
    • Method Example
    • Other Method-Call Possibilities
  • Inheritance
    • Attribute Tree Construction
    • Inheritance Fine Print
    • Specializing Inherited Methods
    • Class Interface Techniques
    • Abstract Superclasses
      • Preview: Abstract superclasses with library tools
  • Namespaces: The Conclusion
    • Simple Names: Global Unless Assigned
    • Attribute Names: Object Namespaces
    • The Zen of Namespaces: Assignments Classify Names
    • Nested Classes: The LEGB Scopes Rule Revisited
    • Namespace Dictionaries: Review
    • Namespace Links: A Tree Climber
  • Documentation Strings Revisited
  • Classes Versus Modules
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 30. Operator Overloading
  • The Basics
    • Constructors and Expressions: __init__ and __sub__
    • Common Operator-Overloading Methods
  • Indexing and Slicing: __getitem__ and __setitem__
    • Intercepting Slices
    • Intercepting Item Assignments
    • But __index__ Means As-Integer
  • Index Iteration: __getitem__
  • Iterable Objects: __iter__ and __next__
    • User-Defined Iterables
      • Single versus multiple scans
      • Classes versus generators
    • Multiple Iterators on One Object
      • Classes versus slices
    • Coding Alternative: __iter__ Plus yield
      • Multiple iterators with yield
  • Membership: __contains__, __iter__, and __getitem__
  • Attribute Access: __getattr__ and __setattr__
    • Attribute Reference
    • Attribute Assignment and Deletion
    • Other Attribute-Management Tools
    • Emulating Privacy for Instance Attributes: Part 1
  • String Representation: __repr__ and __str__
    • Why Two Display Methods?
    • Display Usage Notes
  • Right-Side and In-Place Ops: __radd__ and __iadd__
    • Right-Side Addition
      • Reusing __add__ in __radd__
      • Propagating class type
    • In-Place Addition
  • Call Expressions: __call__
    • Function Interfaces and Callback-Based Code
  • Comparisons: __lt__, __gt__, and Others
  • Boolean Tests: __bool__ and __len__
  • Object Destruction: __del__
    • Destructor Usage Notes
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 31. Designing with Classes
  • Python and OOP
    • Polymorphism Means Interfaces, Not Call Signatures
  • OOP and Inheritance: Is-a Relationships
  • OOP and Composition: Has-a Relationships
    • Stream Processors Revisited
  • OOP and Delegation: Like-a Relationships
  • Pseudoprivate Class Attributes
    • Name Mangling Overview
    • Why Use Pseudoprivate Attributes?
  • Method Objects: Bound or Not
    • Bound Methods in Action
  • Classes Are Objects: Generic Object Factories
    • Why Factories?
  • Multiple Inheritance and the MRO
    • How Multiple Inheritance Works
    • How the MRO Works
    • Attribute Conflict Resolution
    • Example: Mix-in Attribute Listers
      • Listing instance attributes with __dict__
      • Listing inherited attributes with dir
      • Listing attributes per object in class trees
    • Example: Mapping Attributes to Inheritance Sources
  • Other Design-Related Topics
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 32. Class Odds and Ends
  • Extending Built-in Object Types
    • Extending Types by Embedding
    • Extending Types by Subclassing
  • The Python Object Model
    • Classes Are Types Are Classes
    • Some Instances Are More Equal Than Others
    • The Inheritance Bifurcation
    • The Metaclass/Class Dichotomy
    • And One object to Rule Them All
  • Advanced Attribute Tools
    • Slots: Attribute Declarations
      • Slot basics
      • You shouldnt normally use slots
      • Slots and namespace dictionaries
      • Multiple __slot__ lists in superclasses
      • Handling slots and other virtual attributes generically
      • Slot usage rules
      • Example impacts of slots: ListTree and mapattrs
      • What about slots speed?
    • Properties: Attribute Accessors
      • Property basics
    • __getattribute__ and Descriptors: Attribute Implementations
  • Static and Class Methods
    • Why the Special Methods?
    • Plain-Function Methods
    • Static Method Alternatives
    • Using Static and Class Methods
    • Counting Instances with Static Methods
    • Counting Instances with Class Methods
      • Counting instances per class with class methods
  • Decorators and Metaclasses
    • Function Decorator Basics
    • A First Look at User-Defined Function Decorators
    • A First Look at Class Decorators and Metaclasses
    • For More Details
  • The super Function
    • The super Basics
    • The super Details
      • A magic proxy
      • Attribute-fetch algorithm
      • Universal deployment
      • Call-chain anchors
      • Same argument lists
      • Noncalls and operator overloading
    • The super Wrap-Up
  • Class Gotchas
    • Changing Class Attributes Can Have Side Effects
    • Changing Mutable Class Attributes Can Have Side Effects, Too
    • Multiple Inheritance: Order Matters
    • Scopes in Methods and Classes
    • Miscellaneous Class Gotchas
    • Overwrapping-itis
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
  • Test Your Knowledge: Part VI Exercises
• VII. Exceptions
• 33. Exception Basics
  • Why Use Exceptions?
    • Exception Roles
  • Exceptions: The Short Story
    • Default Exception Handler
    • Catching Exceptions
    • Raising Exceptions
    • User-Defined Exceptions
    • Termination Actions
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 34. Exception Coding Details
  • The try Statement
    • try Statement Clauses
    • The except and else Clauses
      • How try statements work
      • Catching many exceptions with a tuple
      • Catching all exceptions with empties and Exception
      • Catching the no-exception case with else
      • Example: Default behavior
      • Example: Catching built-in exceptions
    • The finally Clause
      • Example: Coding termination actions with try/finally
    • Combined try Clauses
      • Combined-clause syntax rules
      • Combining finally and except by nesting
      • Combined-clauses example
  • The raise Statement
    • Raising Exceptions
    • The except as hook
    • Scopes and except as
    • Propagating Exceptions with raise
    • Exception Chaining: raise from
  • The assert Statement
    • Example: Trapping Constraints (but Not Errors!)
  • The with Statement and Context Managers
    • Basic with Usage
    • The Context-Management Protocol
    • Multiple Context Managers
    • The Termination-Handlers Shoot-Out
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 35. Exception Objects
  • Exception Classes
    • Coding Exceptions Classes
    • Why Exception Hierarchies?
  • Built-in Exception Classes
    • Built-in Exception Categories
    • Default Printing and State
  • Custom Print Displays
  • Custom State and Behavior
    • Providing Exception Details
    • Providing Exception Methods
  • Exception Groups: Yet Another Star!
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 36. Exception Odds and Ends
  • Nesting Exception Handlers
    • Example: Control-Flow Nesting
    • Example: Syntactic Nesting
  • Exception Idioms
    • Breaking Out of Multiple Nested Loops: go to
    • Exceptions Arent Always Errors
    • Functions Can Signal Conditions with raise
    • Closing Files and Server Connections
    • Debugging with Outer try Statements
    • Running In-Process Tests
    • More on sys.exc_info
      • The sys.exception alternativeand diss
    • Displaying Errors and Tracebacks
  • Exception Design Tips and Gotchas
    • What Should Be Wrapped
    • Catching Too Much: Avoid Empty except and Exception
    • Catching Too Little: Use Class-Based Categories
  • Core Language Wrap-Up
    • The Python Toolset
    • Development Tools for Larger Projects
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
  • Test Your Knowledge: Part VII Exercises
• VIII. Advanced Topics
• 37. Unicode and Byte Strings
  • Unicode Foundations
    • Character Representations
    • Character Encodings
  • Introducing Python String Tools
    • The str Object
    • The bytes Object
    • The bytearray Object
    • Text and Binary Files
  • Using Text Strings
    • Literals and Basic Properties
    • String Type Conversions
    • Coding Unicode Strings in Python
    • Source-File Encoding Declarations
  • Using Byte Strings
    • Methods
    • Sequence Operations
    • Formatting
    • Other Ways to Make Bytes
    • Mixing String Types
    • The bytearray Object
  • Using Text and Binary Files
    • Text-File Basics
    • Text and Binary Modes
    • Unicode-Text Files
  • Unicode, Bytes, and Other String Tools
    • The re Pattern-Matching Module
    • The struct Binary-Data Module
    • The pickle and json Serialization Modules
    • Filenames in open and Other Filename Tools
  • The Unicode Twilight Zone
    • Dropping the BOM in Python
      • Making BOMs in Text Editors
      • Making BOMs in Python
    • Unicode Normalization: Whither Standard?
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 38. Managed Attributes
  • Why Manage Attributes?
    • Inserting Code to Run on Attribute Access
  • Properties
    • The Basics
    • A First Example
    • Computed Attributes
    • Coding Properties with Decorators
      • Setter and deleter decorators
  • Descriptors
    • The Basics
      • Descriptor method arguments
      • Read-only descriptors
    • A First Example
    • Computed Attributes
    • Using State Information in Descriptors
    • How Properties and Descriptors Relate
      • Descriptors and slots and more
  • __getattr__ and __getattribute__
    • The Basics
      • Avoiding loops in attribute interception methods
    • A First Example
      • Using __getattribute__
    • Computed Attributes
      • Using __getattribute__
    • __getattr__ and __getattribute__ Compared
    • Management Techniques Compared
    • Intercepting Built-in Operation Attributes
      • Revisiting Chapter 28s delegation example
  • Example: Attribute Validations
    • Using Properties to Validate
      • Testing code
    • Using Descriptors to Validate
      • Option 1: Validating with shared descriptor-instance state (badly!)
      • Option 2: Validating with per-client-instance state (correctly)
    • Using __getattr__ to Validate
    • Using __getattribute__ to Validate
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
    • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 39. Decorators
  • Whats a Decorator?
    • Managing Calls and Instances
    • Managing Functions and Classes
    • Using and Defining Decorators
    • Why Decorators?
  • The Basics
    • Function Decorator Basics
      • Usage
      • Implementation
      • Supporting method decoration
    • Class Decorator Basics
      • Usage
      • Implementation
      • Supporting multiple instances
    • Decorator Nesting
    • Decorator Arguments
    • Decorators Manage Functions and Classes, Too
  • Coding Function Decorators
    • Tracing Function Calls
    • Decorator State Retention Options
      • State with class-instance attributes
      • State with global variables
      • State with enclosing-scope nonlocals
      • State with function attributes
    • Class Pitfall: Decorating Methods
      • Using nested functions to decorate methods
      • Using descriptors to decorate methods
    • Timing Function Calls
    • Adding Decorator Arguments
  • Coding Class Decorators
    • Singleton Classes
      • Singleton coding alternatives
    • Tracing Object Interfaces
      • The nondecorator approach
      • The class-decorator approach
      • Applying class decorators to built-in types
    • Class Pitfall: Retaining Multiple Instances
  • Example: Private and Public Attributes
    • Implementing Private Attributes
    • Implementation Details I
      • Inheritance versus delegation
      • Decorator arguments
      • State retention and enclosing scopes
      • Using __dict__ and __slots__ (and other virtuals)
    • Generalizing for Public Declarations
    • Implementation Details II
      • Using __X pseudoprivate names
      • Breaking privacy
      • Decorator trade-offs
    • Delegating Built-In Operations
      • Workaround: Coding operator-overloading methods inline
      • Workaround: Coding operator-overloading methods in superclasses
      • Workaround: Generating operator-overloading descriptors
  • Example: Validating Function Arguments
    • The Goal
    • A Basic Range-Testing Decorator for Positional Arguments
    • Generalizing for Keywords and Defaults
    • Implementation Details
      • Function introspection
      • Argument assumptions
      • Matching algorithm
    • Open Issues
      • Invalid calls
      • Arbitrary arguments
      • Decorator nesting
    • Decorator Arguments Versus Function Annotations
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 40. Metaclasses and Inheritance
  • To Metaclass or Not to Metaclass
    • The Downside of Helper Functions
    • Metaclasses Versus Class Decorators: Round 1
  • The Metaclass Model
    • Classes Are Instances of type
    • Metaclasses Are Subclasses of type
    • Class Statements Call a type
    • Class Statements Can Choose a type
    • Metaclass Method Protocol
  • Coding Metaclasses
    • A Basic Metaclass
    • Customizing Construction and Initialization
    • Other Metaclass Coding Techniques
      • Using simple factory functions
      • Overloading class creation calls with normal classes
    • Managing Classes with Metaclasses and Decorators
      • Adding methods to classes
      • Automatically decorating class methods
  • Inheritance: The Finale
    • Metaclass Versus Superclass
    • Metaclass Inheritance
    • Python Inheritance Algorithm: The Simple Version
      • The descriptors deviation
    • Python Inheritance Algorithm: The Less Simple Version
      • The assignment addendum
      • The super supplement
      • The built-ins bifurcation
    • The Inheritance Wrap-Up
  • Metaclass Methods
    • Metaclass Methods Versus Class Methods
    • Operator Overloading in Metaclass Methods
    • Metaclass Methods Versus Instance Methods
  • Chapter Summary
  • Test Your Knowledge: Quiz
  • Test Your Knowledge: Answers
• 41. All Good Things
  • The Python Tsunami
  • The Python Sandbox
  • The Python Upside
  • Closing Thoughts
  • Where to Go from Here
  • Encore: Print Your Own Completion Certificate!
• IX. Appendixes
• A. Platform Usage Tips
  • Using Python on Windows
  • Using Python on macOS
  • Using Python on Linux
  • Using Python on Android
  • Using Python on iOS
  • Standalone Apps and Executables
  • Etcetera
• B. Solutions to End-of-Part Exercises
  • Part I, Getting Started
  • Part II, Objects and Operations
  • Part III, Statements and Syntax
  • Part IV, Functions and Generators
  • Part V, Modules and Packages
  • Part VI, Classes and OOP
  • Part VII, Exceptions
• Index